Slide
Centre Interdisciplinaire
de Recherche et d’Innovation
en Cybersécurité et Société
de Recherche et d’Innovation
en Cybersécurité et Société
1.
Côté, L.; Lamontagne, J.; Bellerose, A.; Blais, C.; Fiset, D.
The eyes are central to face detection: revisiting the foundations of face processing Article de journal
Dans: Vision Research, vol. 243, 2026, ISSN: 00426989 (ISSN).
Résumé | Liens | BibTeX | Étiquettes: adult, article, Black person, Bubbles, Categorization, Caucasian, Detection, emotion assessment, Faces, Facial Recognition, facies, female, human, human experiment, Image analysis, information processing, Information use, male, Noise, normal human, perception, Prosopagnosia, spatial frequency discrimination, task performance, visual discrimination, Young Adult
@article{cote_eyes_2026,
title = {The eyes are central to face detection: revisiting the foundations of face processing},
author = {L. Côté and J. Lamontagne and A. Bellerose and C. Blais and D. Fiset},
url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-105030389147&doi=10.1016%2Fj.visres.2026.108785&partnerID=40&md5=752aa5d9923ac60539e36118ad41e1e6},
doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2026.108785},
issn = {00426989 (ISSN)},
year = {2026},
date = {2026-01-01},
journal = {Vision Research},
volume = {243},
abstract = {Face detection feels effortless, yet it requires finely tuned computations to extract socially meaningful signals from the visual stream. Here, we used the Bubbles method to isolate the facial features and spatial frequency information that support face categorization. Across three experiments varying in task demands and visual context, the eye region consistently emerged as the most diagnostic source of information, particularly in high spatial frequencies. This finding held whether participants distinguished faces from noise, from non-face objects, or from real-world categories—suggesting that the eyes serve as an anchor point for categorization across contexts. Strikingly, this diagnostic profile mirrors that found in face identification tasks, implying that detection and recognition may rely on shared perceptual mechanisms rather than sequential, independent processes. This overlap sheds light on longstanding ambiguities in the prosopagnosia literature, indicating that detection impairments found in patients may stem from a broader failure to extract critical eye information. More broadly, our results invite a rethinking of the early stages of face processing, suggesting that detection already involves selective use of diagnostic facial features that supports recognition, emotional decoding, and social perception. © 2026 The Author(s).},
keywords = {adult, article, Black person, Bubbles, Categorization, Caucasian, Detection, emotion assessment, Faces, Facial Recognition, facies, female, human, human experiment, Image analysis, information processing, Information use, male, Noise, normal human, perception, Prosopagnosia, spatial frequency discrimination, task performance, visual discrimination, Young Adult},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Face detection feels effortless, yet it requires finely tuned computations to extract socially meaningful signals from the visual stream. Here, we used the Bubbles method to isolate the facial features and spatial frequency information that support face categorization. Across three experiments varying in task demands and visual context, the eye region consistently emerged as the most diagnostic source of information, particularly in high spatial frequencies. This finding held whether participants distinguished faces from noise, from non-face objects, or from real-world categories—suggesting that the eyes serve as an anchor point for categorization across contexts. Strikingly, this diagnostic profile mirrors that found in face identification tasks, implying that detection and recognition may rely on shared perceptual mechanisms rather than sequential, independent processes. This overlap sheds light on longstanding ambiguities in the prosopagnosia literature, indicating that detection impairments found in patients may stem from a broader failure to extract critical eye information. More broadly, our results invite a rethinking of the early stages of face processing, suggesting that detection already involves selective use of diagnostic facial features that supports recognition, emotional decoding, and social perception. © 2026 The Author(s).
2.
Ledrou-Paquet, V.; Fiset, D.; Carré, M.; Guérette, J.; Blais, C.
The facial information underlying economic decision-making Article de journal
Dans: Perception, vol. 55, no 3, p. 243–265, 2026, ISSN: 03010066 (ISSN).
Résumé | Liens | BibTeX | Étiquettes: Bubbles, face evaluation, face perception, facial trustworthiness, Social Perception, trust game, trustworthiness
@article{ledrou-paquet_facial_2026,
title = {The facial information underlying economic decision-making},
author = {V. Ledrou-Paquet and D. Fiset and M. Carré and J. Guérette and C. Blais},
url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-105020458633&doi=10.1177%2F03010066251387848&partnerID=40&md5=7c1ead96fa13944073ed63bc952ca723},
doi = {10.1177/03010066251387848},
issn = {03010066 (ISSN)},
year = {2026},
date = {2026-01-01},
journal = {Perception},
volume = {55},
number = {3},
pages = {243–265},
abstract = {Faces are rapidly and automatically assessed on multiple social dimensions, including trustworthiness. The high inter-rater agreement on this social judgment suggests a systematic association between facial appearance and perceived trustworthiness. The facial information used by observers during explicit trustworthiness judgments has been studied before. However, it remains unknown whether the same perceptual strategies are used during decisions that involve trusting another individual, without necessitating an explicit trustworthiness judgment. To explore this, 53 participants completed the Trust Game, an economic decision task, while facial information was randomly sampled using the Bubbles method. Our results show that economic decisions based on facial cues rely on similar visual information as that used during explicit trustworthiness judgments. We then manipulated facial features identified as diagnostic for trust to test their influence on perceived trustworthiness (Experiment 2) and on trust-related behaviors (Experiment 3). Across all experiments, subtle, targeted changes to facial features systematically shifted both impressions and monetary trust decisions. These findings demonstrate that the same perceptual strategies underlie explicit judgments and trust behaviors, highlighting the applied relevance of even minimal alterations in facial appearance. These findings should be replicated with real faces from diverse demographic backgrounds to confirm their generalizability. © The Author(s) 2025. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).},
keywords = {Bubbles, face evaluation, face perception, facial trustworthiness, Social Perception, trust game, trustworthiness},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Faces are rapidly and automatically assessed on multiple social dimensions, including trustworthiness. The high inter-rater agreement on this social judgment suggests a systematic association between facial appearance and perceived trustworthiness. The facial information used by observers during explicit trustworthiness judgments has been studied before. However, it remains unknown whether the same perceptual strategies are used during decisions that involve trusting another individual, without necessitating an explicit trustworthiness judgment. To explore this, 53 participants completed the Trust Game, an economic decision task, while facial information was randomly sampled using the Bubbles method. Our results show that economic decisions based on facial cues rely on similar visual information as that used during explicit trustworthiness judgments. We then manipulated facial features identified as diagnostic for trust to test their influence on perceived trustworthiness (Experiment 2) and on trust-related behaviors (Experiment 3). Across all experiments, subtle, targeted changes to facial features systematically shifted both impressions and monetary trust decisions. These findings demonstrate that the same perceptual strategies underlie explicit judgments and trust behaviors, highlighting the applied relevance of even minimal alterations in facial appearance. These findings should be replicated with real faces from diverse demographic backgrounds to confirm their generalizability. © The Author(s) 2025. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
3.
Charbonneau, I.; Duncan, J.; Blais, C.; Guérette, J.; Plouffe-Demers, M. -P.; Smith, F.; Fiset, D.
Facial expression categorization predominantly relies on mid-spatial frequencies Article de journal
Dans: Vision Research, vol. 231, 2025, ISSN: 00426989 (ISSN), (Publisher: Elsevier Ltd).
Résumé | Liens | BibTeX | Étiquettes: adult, article, Bubbles, Classification, controlled study, emotion, Emotions, Facial Expression, facial expressions, Facial Recognition, female, human, Humans, male, physiology, Psychophysics, simulation, Spatial frequencies, Young Adult
@article{charbonneau_facial_2025,
title = {Facial expression categorization predominantly relies on mid-spatial frequencies},
author = {I. Charbonneau and J. Duncan and C. Blais and J. Guérette and M. -P. Plouffe-Demers and F. Smith and D. Fiset},
url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-105003427898&doi=10.1016%2Fj.visres.2025.108611&partnerID=40&md5=508d315d8092a9142c2d82f1b774cfdb},
doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2025.108611},
issn = {00426989 (ISSN)},
year = {2025},
date = {2025-01-01},
journal = {Vision Research},
volume = {231},
abstract = {Facial expressions are crucial in human communication. Recent decades have seen growing interest in understanding the role of spatial frequencies (SFs) in emotion perception in others. While some studies have suggested a preferential treatment of low versus high SFs, the optimal SFs for recognizing basic facial expressions remain elusive. This study, conducted on Western participants, addresses this gap using two complementary methods: a data-driven method (Exp. 1) without arbitrary SF cut-offs, and a more naturalistic method (Exp. 2) simulating variations in viewing distance. Results generally showed a preponderant role of low over high SFs, but particularly stress that facial expression categorization mostly relies on mid-range SF content (i.e. ∼6–13 cycles per face), often overlooked in previous studies. Optimal performance was observed at short to medium viewing distances (1.2–2.4 m), declining sharply with increased distance, precisely when mid-range SFs were no longer available. Additionally, our data suggest variations in SF tuning profiles across basic facial expressions and nuanced contributions from low and mid SFs in facial expression processing. Most importantly, it suggests that any method that removes mid-SF content has the downfall of offering an incomplete account of SFs diagnosticity for facial expression recognition. © 2025 The Authors},
note = {Publisher: Elsevier Ltd},
keywords = {adult, article, Bubbles, Classification, controlled study, emotion, Emotions, Facial Expression, facial expressions, Facial Recognition, female, human, Humans, male, physiology, Psychophysics, simulation, Spatial frequencies, Young Adult},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Facial expressions are crucial in human communication. Recent decades have seen growing interest in understanding the role of spatial frequencies (SFs) in emotion perception in others. While some studies have suggested a preferential treatment of low versus high SFs, the optimal SFs for recognizing basic facial expressions remain elusive. This study, conducted on Western participants, addresses this gap using two complementary methods: a data-driven method (Exp. 1) without arbitrary SF cut-offs, and a more naturalistic method (Exp. 2) simulating variations in viewing distance. Results generally showed a preponderant role of low over high SFs, but particularly stress that facial expression categorization mostly relies on mid-range SF content (i.e. ∼6–13 cycles per face), often overlooked in previous studies. Optimal performance was observed at short to medium viewing distances (1.2–2.4 m), declining sharply with increased distance, precisely when mid-range SFs were no longer available. Additionally, our data suggest variations in SF tuning profiles across basic facial expressions and nuanced contributions from low and mid SFs in facial expression processing. Most importantly, it suggests that any method that removes mid-SF content has the downfall of offering an incomplete account of SFs diagnosticity for facial expression recognition. © 2025 The Authors
4.
Duncan, J.; Dugas, G.; Brisson, B.; Blais, C.; Fiset, D.
Dual-task interference on left eye utilization during facial emotion perception Article de journal
Dans: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, vol. 45, no 10, p. 1319–1330, 2019, ISSN: 00961523 (ISSN), (Publisher: American Psychological Association Inc.).
Résumé | Liens | BibTeX | Étiquettes: Adolescent, adult, attention, Auditory Perception, Automatic processing, Bubbles, Central attention, emotion, Emotions, Executive Function, Eye, Facial Expression, Facial Recognition, female, hearing, human, Humans, male, perception, physiology, Psychological, psychological refractory period, Psychophysics, Refractory Period, Social Perception, Young Adult
@article{duncan_dual-task_2019,
title = {Dual-task interference on left eye utilization during facial emotion perception},
author = {J. Duncan and G. Dugas and B. Brisson and C. Blais and D. Fiset},
url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85068219081&doi=10.1037%2fxhp0000674&partnerID=40&md5=f432c0265348103d6fce87660baa4c18},
doi = {10.1037/xhp0000674},
issn = {00961523 (ISSN)},
year = {2019},
date = {2019-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance},
volume = {45},
number = {10},
pages = {1319–1330},
publisher = {American Psychological Association Inc.},
abstract = {There is an ongoing debate in the literature about whether facial emotion perception is carried automatically- that is, without effort or attentional resources. While it is generally accepted that spatial attention is necessary for the perception of emotional facial expressions, the picture is less clear for central attention. Using the bubbles method, we provide results that were obtained by measuring the effect of the psychological refractory period on diagnostic information for the basic facial expressions. Based on previous findings that linked spatial attention with processing of the eyes and of high spatial frequencies in the visual periphery, we hypothesized that reliance on the eyes might decrease when central resources were monopolized by a difficult prioritized auditory task. Central load led to a marked decrease in left eye utilization that was generalized across emotions; on the contrary, utilization of the mouth was unaffected by central load. Thus, processing of the left eye might be nonautomatic, and processing of the mouth might be automatic. Interestingly, we also observed a reduction in reliance on the left side of the face under central load that was accompanied by a commensurate increase in reliance on the right side of the face. We end with a discussion of how hemispheric asymmetries might account for these peculiar findings. © 2019 American Psychological Association.},
note = {Publisher: American Psychological Association Inc.},
keywords = {Adolescent, adult, attention, Auditory Perception, Automatic processing, Bubbles, Central attention, emotion, Emotions, Executive Function, Eye, Facial Expression, Facial Recognition, female, hearing, human, Humans, male, perception, physiology, Psychological, psychological refractory period, Psychophysics, Refractory Period, Social Perception, Young Adult},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
There is an ongoing debate in the literature about whether facial emotion perception is carried automatically- that is, without effort or attentional resources. While it is generally accepted that spatial attention is necessary for the perception of emotional facial expressions, the picture is less clear for central attention. Using the bubbles method, we provide results that were obtained by measuring the effect of the psychological refractory period on diagnostic information for the basic facial expressions. Based on previous findings that linked spatial attention with processing of the eyes and of high spatial frequencies in the visual periphery, we hypothesized that reliance on the eyes might decrease when central resources were monopolized by a difficult prioritized auditory task. Central load led to a marked decrease in left eye utilization that was generalized across emotions; on the contrary, utilization of the mouth was unaffected by central load. Thus, processing of the left eye might be nonautomatic, and processing of the mouth might be automatic. Interestingly, we also observed a reduction in reliance on the left side of the face under central load that was accompanied by a commensurate increase in reliance on the right side of the face. We end with a discussion of how hemispheric asymmetries might account for these peculiar findings. © 2019 American Psychological Association.
5.
Blais, C.; Fiset, D.; Roy, C.; Régimbald, C. S.; Gosselin, F.
Eye fixation patterns for categorizing static and dynamic facial Expressions Article de journal
Dans: Emotion, vol. 17, no 7, p. 1107–1119, 2017, ISSN: 15283542 (ISSN), (Publisher: American Psychological Association Inc.).
Résumé | Liens | BibTeX | Étiquettes: adult, anatomy and histology, Bubbles, Dynamic, emotion, Emotions, Eye, eye fixation, Eye movements, eye tracking, Facial Expression, facial expressions, female, Fixation, human, Humans, male, Mouth, Ocular, Photic Stimulation, photostimulation, physiology, PsycINFO, stimulus, Visual strategies, Young Adult
@article{blais_eye_2017,
title = {Eye fixation patterns for categorizing static and dynamic facial Expressions},
author = {C. Blais and D. Fiset and C. Roy and C. S. Régimbald and F. Gosselin},
url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85016754655&doi=10.1037%2femo0000283&partnerID=40&md5=baecd8d6500d1447d48a399497611ccd},
doi = {10.1037/emo0000283},
issn = {15283542 (ISSN)},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-01-01},
journal = {Emotion},
volume = {17},
number = {7},
pages = {1107–1119},
publisher = {American Psychological Association Inc.},
abstract = {Facial expressions of emotion are dynamic in nature, but most studies on the visual strategies underlying the recognition of facial emotions have used static stimuli. The present study directly compared the visual strategies underlying the recognition of static and dynamic facial expressions using eye tracking and the Bubbles technique. The results revealed different eye fixation patterns with the 2 kinds of stimuli, with fewer fixations on the eye and mouth area during the recognition of dynamic than static expressions. However, these differences in eye fixations were not accompanied by any systematic differences in the facial information that was actually processed to recognize the expressions. © 2017 American Psychological Association.},
note = {Publisher: American Psychological Association Inc.},
keywords = {adult, anatomy and histology, Bubbles, Dynamic, emotion, Emotions, Eye, eye fixation, Eye movements, eye tracking, Facial Expression, facial expressions, female, Fixation, human, Humans, male, Mouth, Ocular, Photic Stimulation, photostimulation, physiology, PsycINFO, stimulus, Visual strategies, Young Adult},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Facial expressions of emotion are dynamic in nature, but most studies on the visual strategies underlying the recognition of facial emotions have used static stimuli. The present study directly compared the visual strategies underlying the recognition of static and dynamic facial expressions using eye tracking and the Bubbles technique. The results revealed different eye fixation patterns with the 2 kinds of stimuli, with fewer fixations on the eye and mouth area during the recognition of dynamic than static expressions. However, these differences in eye fixations were not accompanied by any systematic differences in the facial information that was actually processed to recognize the expressions. © 2017 American Psychological Association.
6.
Royer, J.; Blais, C.; Barnabé-Lortie, V.; Carré, M.; Leclerc, J.; Fiset, D.
Efficient visual information for unfamiliar face matching despite viewpoint variations: It's not in the eyes! Article de journal
Dans: Vision Research, vol. 123, p. 33–40, 2016, ISSN: 00426989 (ISSN), (Publisher: Elsevier Ltd).
Résumé | Liens | BibTeX | Étiquettes: accuracy, adult, article, association, attention, Bubbles, Evoked Potentials, eye fixation, Face, face profile, face recognition, Facial Recognition, facies, female, Fixation, human, human experiment, Humans, Image analysis, Individual differences, male, Ocular, Pattern Recognition, Photic Stimulation, photostimulation, physiology, priority journal, procedures, Psychophysics, recognition, Recognition (Psychology), regression analysis, task performance, unfamiliar face matching, viewpoint variation, Viewpoint variations, Visual, visual discrimination, visual evoked potential, visual information, visual memory, visual stimulation, visual system parameters, Young Adult
@article{royer_efficient_2016,
title = {Efficient visual information for unfamiliar face matching despite viewpoint variations: It's not in the eyes!},
author = {J. Royer and C. Blais and V. Barnabé-Lortie and M. Carré and J. Leclerc and D. Fiset},
url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84968779426&doi=10.1016%2fj.visres.2016.04.004&partnerID=40&md5=4c63f6eea279f7322c9af23ae9ed22c1},
doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2016.04.004},
issn = {00426989 (ISSN)},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Vision Research},
volume = {123},
pages = {33–40},
publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
abstract = {Faces are encountered in highly diverse angles in real-world settings. Despite this considerable diversity, most individuals are able to easily recognize familiar faces. The vast majority of studies in the field of face recognition have nonetheless focused almost exclusively on frontal views of faces. Indeed, a number of authors have investigated the diagnostic facial features for the recognition of frontal views of faces previously encoded in this same view. However, the nature of the information useful for identity matching when the encoded face and test face differ in viewing angle remains mostly unexplored. The present study addresses this issue using individual differences and bubbles, a method that pinpoints the facial features effectively used in a visual categorization task. Our results indicate that the use of features located in the center of the face, the lower left portion of the nose area and the center of the mouth, are significantly associated with individual efficiency to generalize a face's identity across different viewpoints. However, as faces become more familiar, the reliance on this area decreases, while the diagnosticity of the eye region increases. This suggests that a certain distinction can be made between the visual mechanisms subtending viewpoint invariance and face recognition in the case of unfamiliar face identification. Our results further support the idea that the eye area may only come into play when the face stimulus is particularly familiar to the observer. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd.},
note = {Publisher: Elsevier Ltd},
keywords = {accuracy, adult, article, association, attention, Bubbles, Evoked Potentials, eye fixation, Face, face profile, face recognition, Facial Recognition, facies, female, Fixation, human, human experiment, Humans, Image analysis, Individual differences, male, Ocular, Pattern Recognition, Photic Stimulation, photostimulation, physiology, priority journal, procedures, Psychophysics, recognition, Recognition (Psychology), regression analysis, task performance, unfamiliar face matching, viewpoint variation, Viewpoint variations, Visual, visual discrimination, visual evoked potential, visual information, visual memory, visual stimulation, visual system parameters, Young Adult},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Faces are encountered in highly diverse angles in real-world settings. Despite this considerable diversity, most individuals are able to easily recognize familiar faces. The vast majority of studies in the field of face recognition have nonetheless focused almost exclusively on frontal views of faces. Indeed, a number of authors have investigated the diagnostic facial features for the recognition of frontal views of faces previously encoded in this same view. However, the nature of the information useful for identity matching when the encoded face and test face differ in viewing angle remains mostly unexplored. The present study addresses this issue using individual differences and bubbles, a method that pinpoints the facial features effectively used in a visual categorization task. Our results indicate that the use of features located in the center of the face, the lower left portion of the nose area and the center of the mouth, are significantly associated with individual efficiency to generalize a face's identity across different viewpoints. However, as faces become more familiar, the reliance on this area decreases, while the diagnosticity of the eye region increases. This suggests that a certain distinction can be made between the visual mechanisms subtending viewpoint invariance and face recognition in the case of unfamiliar face identification. Our results further support the idea that the eye area may only come into play when the face stimulus is particularly familiar to the observer. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd.