@article{cote_eyes_2026,

title = {The eyes are central to face detection: revisiting the foundations of face processing},

author = {L. Côté and J. Lamontagne and A. Bellerose and C. Blais and D. Fiset},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-105030389147&doi=10.1016%2Fj.visres.2026.108785&partnerID=40&md5=752aa5d9923ac60539e36118ad41e1e6},

doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2026.108785},

issn = {00426989 (ISSN)},

year  = {2026},

date = {2026-01-01},

journal = {Vision Research},

volume = {243},

abstract = {Face detection feels effortless, yet it requires finely tuned computations to extract socially meaningful signals from the visual stream. Here, we used the Bubbles method to isolate the facial features and spatial frequency information that support face categorization. Across three experiments varying in task demands and visual context, the eye region consistently emerged as the most diagnostic source of information, particularly in high spatial frequencies. This finding held whether participants distinguished faces from noise, from non-face objects, or from real-world categories—suggesting that the eyes serve as an anchor point for categorization across contexts. Strikingly, this diagnostic profile mirrors that found in face identification tasks, implying that detection and recognition may rely on shared perceptual mechanisms rather than sequential, independent processes. This overlap sheds light on longstanding ambiguities in the prosopagnosia literature, indicating that detection impairments found in patients may stem from a broader failure to extract critical eye information. More broadly, our results invite a rethinking of the early stages of face processing, suggesting that detection already involves selective use of diagnostic facial features that supports recognition, emotional decoding, and social perception. © 2026 The Author(s).},

keywords = {adult, article, Black person, Bubbles, Categorization, Caucasian, Detection, emotion assessment, Faces, Facial Recognition, facies, female, human, human experiment, Image analysis, information processing, Information use, male, Noise, normal human, perception, Prosopagnosia, spatial frequency discrimination, task performance, visual discrimination, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gingras_cultural_2026,

title = {Cultural differences in spatial frequency tunings to faces do not generalize to visual scenes and object stimuli},

author = {F. Gingras and D. Fiset and M. -P. Plouffe-Demers and A. Estéphan and M. N’Guiamba and D. Sun and Y. Zhang and C. Blais},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-105025378146&doi=10.3758%2Fs13423-025-02832-0&partnerID=40&md5=43840b8cfa4c2df54e647f03a452f8e5},

doi = {10.3758/s13423-025-02832-0},

issn = {10699384 (ISSN)},

year  = {2026},

date = {2026-01-01},

journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin and Review},

volume = {33},

number = {1},

abstract = {Previous research has identified cultural differences in visual perception, where East Asians focus more on global object structure and display a larger breadth of attention compared with Westerners. East Asians rely on lower spatial frequencies (SFs) compared to Westerners for face recognition, which may be linked to this. Investigating whether such differences extend to other high-level stimulus categories would clarify if SF tuning differences reflect more general or face specific cognitive processes. The present study compared the SF tunings of Canadians and Chinese during object (Exp. 1; N = 50) and scene (Exp. 3; N = 47) categorization. In both experiments, results did not indicate a significant difference between groups. In Experiment 3 (N = 128), we conducted an online replication of Experiment 1 while measuring the SF tunings of the same participants during face perception. Again, no significant difference between the groups was found during object categorization, but the finding that East Asians rely on lower SF than Westerners was replicated. Together, these results suggest that unique mechanisms may underlie the cultural differences in face processing, though alternative explanations, such as the feature consistency of faces, could also account for these findings. © The Psychonomic Society, Inc. 2025.},

keywords = {Adolescent, adult, Asian, Asian People, Canada, Caucasian, China, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Cross-cultural psychology, cultural factor, Depth Perception, Face processing, Facial Recognition, female, human, Humans, male, Object processing, Pattern Recognition, physiology, Scene processing, Space Perception, Spatial frequencies, Visual, visual pattern recognition, Visual Perception, White People, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{charbonneau_facial_2025,

title = {Facial expression categorization predominantly relies on mid-spatial frequencies},

author = {I. Charbonneau and J. Duncan and C. Blais and J. Guérette and M. -P. Plouffe-Demers and F. Smith and D. Fiset},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-105003427898&doi=10.1016%2Fj.visres.2025.108611&partnerID=40&md5=508d315d8092a9142c2d82f1b774cfdb},

doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2025.108611},

issn = {00426989 (ISSN)},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Vision Research},

volume = {231},

abstract = {Facial expressions are crucial in human communication. Recent decades have seen growing interest in understanding the role of spatial frequencies (SFs) in emotion perception in others. While some studies have suggested a preferential treatment of low versus high SFs, the optimal SFs for recognizing basic facial expressions remain elusive. This study, conducted on Western participants, addresses this gap using two complementary methods: a data-driven method (Exp. 1) without arbitrary SF cut-offs, and a more naturalistic method (Exp. 2) simulating variations in viewing distance. Results generally showed a preponderant role of low over high SFs, but particularly stress that facial expression categorization mostly relies on mid-range SF content (i.e. ∼6–13 cycles per face), often overlooked in previous studies. Optimal performance was observed at short to medium viewing distances (1.2–2.4 m), declining sharply with increased distance, precisely when mid-range SFs were no longer available. Additionally, our data suggest variations in SF tuning profiles across basic facial expressions and nuanced contributions from low and mid SFs in facial expression processing. Most importantly, it suggests that any method that removes mid-SF content has the downfall of offering an incomplete account of SFs diagnosticity for facial expression recognition. © 2025 The Authors},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier Ltd},

keywords = {adult, article, Bubbles, Classification, controlled study, emotion, Emotions, Facial Expression, facial expressions, Facial Recognition, female, human, Humans, male, physiology, Psychophysics, simulation, Spatial frequencies, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{blais_conducting_2025,

title = {Conducting online visual psychophysics experiments: A replication assessment of two face processing studies},

author = {C. Blais and D. Fiset and L. Côté and V. Ledrou-Paquet and I. Charbonneau},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-105004807446&doi=10.1016%2fj.visres.2025.108617&partnerID=40&md5=771b056e57c4d7a34ff7c56ce39a4bd2},

doi = {10.1016/j.visres.2025.108617},

issn = {00426989 (ISSN)},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Vision Research},

volume = {233},

publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},

abstract = {In vision sciences, researchers rigorously control the testing environment and the physical properties of stimuli, making it challenging to conduct visual perception experiments online. However, online research offers key advantages, including access to larger and more diverse participant samples, helping to address the problem of underpowered studies and to enhance the generalizability of results. In face recognition research, increasing diversity is essential, especially considering evidence that cultural and geographical factors influence basic visual face processing. The present study tested a new online platform, Pack & Go from VPixx Technologies, that supports experiments written in MATLAB and Python. Two face recognition experiments based on a data-driven psychophysical method involving real-time stimulus manipulation and relying on functions from the Psychtoolbox were tested. In Experiment 1, the visual information used for face recognition was compared across four conditions that gradually reduced experimental control over the testing environment and stimulus properties. In Experiment 2, the association between face recognition abilities and information utilization was measured online and compared to lab-based results. In both experiments, results obtained in the lab and online were highly similar, demonstrating the potential of online research for vision science. © 2025 The Author(s)},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier Ltd},

keywords = {adult, article, cultural factor, experiment, Facial Recognition, female, geography, human, human experiment, Humans, information processing, laboratory, male, normal human, online system, Photic Stimulation, photostimulation, physiology, procedures, psychology, Psychophysics, recognition, stimulus response, vision, visual stimulation, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{audette_part-based_2025,

title = {Part-based processing, but not holistic processing, predicts individual differences in face recognition abilities},

author = {P. -L. Audette and L. Côté and C. Blais and J. Duncan and F. Gingras and D. Fiset},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85213575434&doi=10.1016%2fj.cognition.2024.106057&partnerID=40&md5=135d2ba1bdf18648b57db0d3a93d0628},

doi = {10.1016/j.cognition.2024.106057},

issn = {00100277 (ISSN)},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Cognition},

volume = {256},

publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},

abstract = {This study aimed to assess the roles of part-based and holistic processing for face processing ability (FPA). A psychophysical paradigm in which the efficiency at recognizing isolated or combined facial parts was used (N = 64), and holistic processing was defined as the perceptual integration from multiple parts. FPA and object processing ability were measured using a battery of tasks. A multiple linear regression including three predictors, namely perceptual integration, part-based efficiency, and object processing, explained 40 % of the variance in FPA. Most importantly, our results reveal a strong predictive relationship between part-based efficiency and FPA, a small predictive relationship between object processing ability and FPA, and no predictive relationship between perceptual integration and FPA. This result was obtained despite considerable variance in perceptual integration skills–with some participants exhibiting a highly efficient integration. These results indicate that part-based processing plays a pivotal role in FPA, whereas holistic processing does not. © 2024 The Authors},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier B.V.},

keywords = {Adolescent, adult, article, face perception, face recognition, Facial Recognition, female, human, human experiment, Humans, Individual differences, Individuality, Integration efficiency, male, multiple linear regression analysis, physiology, psychology, Psychophysics, recognition, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gingras_differences_2023,

title = {Differences in eye movements for face recognition between Canadian and Chinese participants are not modulated by social orientation},

author = {F. Gingras and A. Estéphan and D. Fiset and H. Lingnan and R. Caldara and C. Blais},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85179766751&doi=10.1371%2fjournal.pone.0295256&partnerID=40&md5=34499ca3a094ccf3937f07a1fb177c82},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0295256},

issn = {19326203 (ISSN)},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-01-01},

journal = {PLoS ONE},

volume = {18},

number = {12 December},

publisher = {Public Library of Science},

abstract = {Face recognition strategies do not generalize across individuals. Many studies have reported robust cultural differences between West Europeans/North Americans and East Asians in eye movement strategies during face recognition. The social orientation hypothesis posits that individualistic vs. collectivistic (IND/COL) value systems, respectively defining West European/North American and East Asian societies, would be at the root of many cultural differences in visual perception. Whether social orientation is also responsible for such cultural contrast in face recognition remains to be clarified. To this aim, we conducted two experiments with West European/North American and Chinese observers. In Experiment 1, we probed the existence of a link between IND/COL social values and eye movements during face recognition, by using an IND/COL priming paradigm. In Experiment 2, we dissected the latter relationship in greater depth, by using two IND/COL questionnaires, including subdimensions to those concepts. In both studies, cultural differences in fixation patterns were revealed between West European/North American and East Asian observers. Priming IND/ COL values did not modulate eye movement visual sampling strategies, and only specific subdimensions of the IND/COL questionnaires were associated with distinct eye-movement patterns. Altogether, we show that the typical contrast between IND/COL cannot fully account for cultural differences in eye movement strategies for face recognition. Cultural differences in eye movements for faces might originate from mechanisms distinct from social orientation. © 2023 Gingras et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.},

note = {Publisher: Public Library of Science},

keywords = {adult, article, Asian, Asian People, Canada, Canadian, China, Chinese, clinical article, Diagnosis, East Asian, eye movement, Eye movements, Facial Recognition, female, human, human experiment, Humans, male, North American, Orientation, questionnaire, social value, vision},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{charbonneau_role_2021,

title = {The role of spatial frequencies for facial pain categorization},

author = {I. Charbonneau and J. Guérette and S. Cormier and C. Blais and G. Lalonde-Beaudoin and F. W. Smith and D. Fiset},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85111138273&doi=10.1038%2fs41598-021-93776-7&partnerID=40&md5=d759d0218de65fce371bb51d7f2593d8},

doi = {10.1038/s41598-021-93776-7},

issn = {20452322},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {11},

number = {1},

publisher = {Nature Research},

abstract = {Studies on low-level visual information underlying pain categorization have led to inconsistent findings. Some show an advantage for low spatial frequency information (SFs) and others a preponderance of mid SFs. This study aims to clarify this gap in knowledge since these results have different theoretical and practical implications, such as how far away an observer can be in order to categorize pain. This study addresses this question by using two complementary methods: a data-driven method without a priori expectations about the most useful SFs for pain recognition and a more ecological method that simulates the distance of stimuli presentation. We reveal a broad range of important SFs for pain recognition starting from low to relatively high SFs and showed that performance is optimal in a short to medium distance (1.2–4.8 m) but declines significantly when mid SFs are no longer available. This study reconciles previous results that show an advantage of LSFs over HSFs when using arbitrary cutoffs, but above all reveal the prominent role of mid-SFs for pain recognition across two complementary experimental tasks. © 2021, The Author(s).},

note = {Publisher: Nature Research},

keywords = {Adolescent, adult, Classification, Distance Perception, emotion, Emotions, Face, face pain, Facial Expression, Facial Pain, Facial Recognition, female, human, Humans, Knowledge, male, Normal Distribution, Pattern Recognition, procedures, psychology, Psychophysics, recognition, reproducibility, Reproducibility of Results, Visual, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{turgeon_recognition_2020,

title = {Recognition of children's emotional facial expressions among mothers reporting a history of childhood maltreatment},

author = {J. Turgeon and A. Berube and C. Blais and A. Lemieux and A. Fournier},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85098916379&doi=10.1371%2fjournal.pone.0243083&partnerID=40&md5=2ef477465c0ad75d67b7f13d05f783b2},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0243083},

issn = {19326203},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {PLoS ONE},

volume = {15},

number = {12 December},

publisher = {Public Library of Science},

abstract = {Several studies have shown that child maltreatment is associated with both positive and negative effects on the recognition of facial emotions. Research has provided little evidence of a relation between maltreatment during childhood and young adults' ability to recognize facial displays of emotion in children, an essential skill for a sensitive parental response. In this study, we examined the consequences of different forms of maltreatment experienced in childhood on emotion recognition during parenthood. Participants included sixty-three mothers of children aged 2 to 5 years. Retrospective self-reports of childhood maltreatment were assessed using the short form of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). Emotion recognition was measured using a morphed facial emotion identification task of all six basic emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise). A Path Analysis via Structural Equation Model revealed that a history of physical abuse is related to a decreased ability to recognize both fear and sadness in children, whereas emotional abuse and sexual abuse are related to a decreased ability to recognize anger in children. In addition, emotional neglect is associated with an increased ability to recognize anger, whereas physical neglect is associated with less accuracy in recognizing happiness in children's facial emotional expressions. These findings have important clinical implications and expand current understanding of the consequences of childhood maltreatment on parents' ability to detect children's needs. © 2020 Turgeon et al.},

note = {Publisher: Public Library of Science},

keywords = {adult, Adverse Childhood Experiences, anger, article, Child, Child Abuse, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, disgust, emotion, emotional neglect, Emotions, Facial Expression, Facial Recognition, Fear, female, happiness, human, Humans, major clinical study, male, mother, Mothers, parenthood, path analysis, physical abuse, Preschool, preschool child, psychology, recognition, Retrospective Studies, retrospective study, sadness, self report, sexual abuse, structural equation modeling, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{duncan_dual-task_2019,

title = {Dual-task interference on left eye utilization during facial emotion perception},

author = {J. Duncan and G. Dugas and B. Brisson and C. Blais and D. Fiset},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85068219081&doi=10.1037%2fxhp0000674&partnerID=40&md5=f432c0265348103d6fce87660baa4c18},

doi = {10.1037/xhp0000674},

issn = {00961523 (ISSN)},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance},

volume = {45},

number = {10},

pages = {1319–1330},

publisher = {American Psychological Association Inc.},

abstract = {There is an ongoing debate in the literature about whether facial emotion perception is carried automatically- that is, without effort or attentional resources. While it is generally accepted that spatial attention is necessary for the perception of emotional facial expressions, the picture is less clear for central attention. Using the bubbles method, we provide results that were obtained by measuring the effect of the psychological refractory period on diagnostic information for the basic facial expressions. Based on previous findings that linked spatial attention with processing of the eyes and of high spatial frequencies in the visual periphery, we hypothesized that reliance on the eyes might decrease when central resources were monopolized by a difficult prioritized auditory task. Central load led to a marked decrease in left eye utilization that was generalized across emotions; on the contrary, utilization of the mouth was unaffected by central load. Thus, processing of the left eye might be nonautomatic, and processing of the mouth might be automatic. Interestingly, we also observed a reduction in reliance on the left side of the face under central load that was accompanied by a commensurate increase in reliance on the right side of the face. We end with a discussion of how hemispheric asymmetries might account for these peculiar findings. © 2019 American Psychological Association.},

note = {Publisher: American Psychological Association Inc.},

keywords = {Adolescent, adult, attention, Auditory Perception, Automatic processing, Bubbles, Central attention, emotion, Emotions, Executive Function, Eye, Facial Expression, Facial Recognition, female, hearing, human, Humans, male, perception, physiology, Psychological, psychological refractory period, Psychophysics, Refractory Period, Social Perception, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{duncan_revisiting_2019,

title = {Revisiting the Link Between Horizontal Tuning and Face Processing Ability With Independent Measures},

author = {J. Duncan and J. Royer and G. Dugas and C. Blais and D. Fiset},

url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85074117809&doi=10.1037%2fxhp0000684&partnerID=40&md5=b88c8d1ad6db16940a7782d664414dae},

doi = {10.1037/xhp0000684},

issn = {00961523},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance},

publisher = {American Psychological Association},

abstract = {In recent years, horizontal spatial information has received attention for its role in face perception. One study, for instance, has reported an association between horizontal tuning for faces and face identification ability measured within the same task. A possible consequence of this is that the correlation could have been overestimated. In the present study, we wanted to reexamine this question. We first measured face processing ability on the Cambridge Face Memory Test±, the Cambridge Face Perception Test, and the Glasgow Face Matching Test. A single ability score was extracted using a principal components analysis. In a separate task, participants also completed an identification task in which faces were randomly filtered on a trial basis using orientation bubbles. This task allowed the extraction of individual orientation profiles and horizontal tuning scores for faces. We then measured the association between horizontal tuning for faces and the face-processing ability score and observed a significant positive correlation. Importantly, this relation could not be accounted for by other factors such as object-processing ability, horizontal tuning for cars, or greater sensitivity to horizontal gratings. Our data give further credence to the hypothesis that horizontal facial structure plays a crucial role in face processing. © 2019 American Psychological Association.},

note = {Publisher: American Psychological Association},

keywords = {Adolescent, adult, Depth Perception, Facial Recognition, human, Humans, neuropsychological test, Neuropsychological Tests, perception, physiology, Psychophysics, Social Perception, Space Perception, Young Adult},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}